ozanj.github.io/student_list_policy/slides/student_list_cshpe.html
— .section
Extant literatures, not mutually exclusive
Third-party providers; the other for-profit industry in education
Developing a literature about algorithmic products
Structural racism
Critical turn in higher education research - Experiences of
individual people provide insight about structural racism
Critical data studies (e.g., and Benjamin, 2019; and Noble,
2018) and sociology of race (e.g., and Cottom, 2020; and Norris, 2021)
finds algorithmic reproduce/increase racial inequality -
Structurally racist inputs: Seemingly neutral inputs that
correlate with race because of historical exclusion from this input
(e.g., zip code, AP exam scores)
RQ: What is the relationship between student
list search filters (e.g., test score range, zip code) and the
characteristics of students who are included vs. excluded by student
list purchases? - Analyze student lists purchased from College Board -
Focus on race and class inequality in which prospects are
included/excluded by student list purchases
— .section
— .subsection
A national voucher system - Tuition revenue: household savings; grants and loans from federal, state, and private sources - Tuition revenue follows students to Title IV institutions
Students - Goal: want to attend college - Problem: don’t know
all options, where they would be admitted, how much it will cost
Universities - Goal: enroll students to survive and other
enrollment goals - Problem: can’t rely solely on students who reach out
on their own; don’t know the prospects or how to contact them
Student lists - A matchmaking intermediary that connects institutions to prospects - “lead generation” - Student lists are an example of list-based leads, based on direct mail - As opposed to behavioral-based leads (e.g., ads from Google Search)
— &twocol
*** =left
Prospects
Leads
Inquiries
Interventions along the funnel
*** =right
Source: pngwing.com
Sources of student list data
What information does a list contain (College
Board template) - Contact, demographic, college preferences, limited
academic achievement
Pricing
Buying student lists
— .subsection
From The Student List Business: Primer and market dynamics (Jaquette, Salazar, and Martin, 2022):
— .section
— .subsection
Enrollment funnel: prospects, leads, inquires, applicants, admits, enrolled - Most scholarship focuses on latter stages (e.g., which applicants get admitted) - Growing body of research analyzes recruiting “in the wild”
Recruiting from perspective of high school students (Holland,
2019) - Underrepresented students sensitive to feeling “wanted” by
colleges
Connections between (fancy) high schools and (fancy) colleges
from an orgs perspective - Off-campus recruiting visits indicate a
network tie and enrollment priorities - recruiting from perspective of:
private college (Stevens, 2007); private HS counselors (Khan, 2011) -
Recruiting visits by public research universities (e.g., Salazar,
Jaquette, and Han, 2021; and Salazar, 2022)
Recruiting at open-access PSIs for adults (e.g., and Cottom,
2017; and Posecznick, 2017) - For-profits have demand in Black/Latinx
communities because traditional colleges ignore
them
Hook - Scholarship assumes that recruiting is something done by
colleges - Ignores products and consultancies that structure
recruiting
— .subsection
Algorithms
Algorithmic products utilize actuarial methods and logic
Actuarialism and standardization
Classification situations (Fourcade and Healy, 2013)
Structurally racist inputs
Racial exclusion is consequence of micro-targeting, market segmentation (Benjamin, 2019; Noble, 2018)
Micro-targeting and segmentation by Facebook (Cotter, Medeiros, Pak, and Thorson, 2021, p. 1)
Student list products - College Board Student Search: “create a
real pipeline of best-fit prospects” - Ruffalo Noel Levitz (2021):
“target the right students in the right markets” by making “the most
efficient name purchases using predictive modeling”
Hook: Sociology of race has not studied products that help orgs
identify customers (I think)
— .section
Primary research question:
Two mechanisms of racial and socioeconomic exclusion in student list products (Salazar, Jaquette, and Han, 2022):
Salazar, Jaquette, and Han (2022) categorizes College Board search filters into four buckets:
Drawing largely from the sociology of race, we develop
expectations about which filters are associated with problematic
exclusion
Geographic search filters enable universities to target prospects based on where they live
Critical geography and whiteness as property Harris (1993); Salazar (2022)
Expected results
— .section
— .subsection
Data collection
For each purchased list, sought two pieces of data
Empirical research questions
| State | # received order summary | # no order summary | # received list | # no list | # received both | # did not receive both |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CA | 9 | 23 | 13 | 19 | 9 | 23 |
| IL | 9 | 3 | 9 | 3 | 8 | 4 |
| TX | 15 | 20 | 16 | 19 | 10 | 25 |
— .subsection
| RQ1 | RQ3 | RQ2 | RQ3 |
|---|---|---|---|
| # orders total | # orders with list | # prospects total | # prospects with order |
| 830 | 414 | 3,663,257 | 2,549,085 |
Empirical research questions
Case study research design because non-random sample
— .section
— .subsection
— .subsubsection
— .subsubsection
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— .subsubsection
— .subsubsection
| Research | MA/doctoral | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Filters | Count | Percent | Filters | Count | Percent |
| HS grad class, GPA, SAT, PSAT, Rank, State, Race | 39 | 10% | HS grad class, GPA, SAT, Zip code | 206 | 45% |
| HS grad class, PSAT, State | 27 | 7% | HS grad class, GPA, PSAT, Zip code | 145 | 32% |
| HS grad class, GPA, PSAT, State, Race | 20 | 5% | HS grad class, SAT, State | 31 | 7% |
| HS grad class, PSAT, State, Low SES | 20 | 5% | HS grad class, GPA, SAT, PSAT, Zip code | 28 | 6% |
| HS grad class, GPA, PSAT, State | 17 | 5% | HS grad class, GPA, SAT, State | 7 | 2% |
| HS grad class, GPA, SAT, State | 16 | 4% | HS grad class, SAT, Geomarket | 6 | 1% |
| HS grad class, GPA, AP score, Geomarket | 15 | 4% | HS grad class, GPA, SAT, County | 5 | 1% |
| HS grad class, GPA, SAT, PSAT, State, Segment, Gender | 13 | 3% | HS grad class, GPA, SAT, PSAT, County | 4 | 1% |
| HS grad class, PSAT, Geomarket | 12 | 3% | HS grad class, GPA, PSAT, State | 2 | 0% |
| HS grad class, SAT, State, Low SES, College size | 11 | 3% | HS grad class, SAT, Geomarket, College type | 2 | 0% |
— .subsection
— .subsubsection
— .subsubsection
— .subsection
— .subsubsection
| Academic | Geographic | Demographic | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All domestic | GPA | PSAT | SAT | HS rank | AP score | Zip code | State | Geomarket | Segment | CBSA | Race | Gender | ||||
| Total | 3,547,620 | 1,101,266 | 1,812,447 | 971,237 | 146,660 | 75,479 | 165,924 | 1,173,678 | 1,056,951 | 186,519 | 146,313 | 279,626 | 39,546 | |||
| Location | ||||||||||||||||
| % In-state | 38 | 62 | 30 | 54 | 83 | 42 | 98 | 48 | 17 | 15 | 4 | 59 | 6 | |||
| % Out-of-state | 62 | 38 | 70 | 46 | 17 | 58 | 2 | 52 | 83 | 85 | 96 | 41 | 94 | |||
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||||||||||||
| % White | 48 | 45 | 50 | 47 | 51 | 17 | 43 | 42 | 57 | 51 | 53 | 25 | 47 | |||
| % Asian | 16 | 15 | 17 | 15 | 10 | 7 | 13 | 18 | 13 | 27 | 28 | 5 | 38 | |||
| % Black | 5 | 7 | 4 | 7 | 8 | 17 | 8 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 11 | 1 | |||
| % Latinx | 21 | 24 | 19 | 22 | 23 | 46 | 27 | 24 | 16 | 11 | 8 | 46 | 6 | |||
| % AI/AN | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | |||
| % NH/PI | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| % Multiracial | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 10 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 9 | 5 | |||
| % Other | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| % No response | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 3 | |||
| % Missing | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Gender | ||||||||||||||||
| % Male | 34 | 19 | 37 | 18 | 0 | 3 | 46 | 24 | 48 | 6 | 0 | 11 | 0 | |||
| % Female | 36 | 23 | 40 | 20 | 1 | 15 | 54 | 27 | 52 | 9 | 0 | 12 | 33 | |||
| % Other | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| % Missing | 30 | 58 | 22 | 63 | 99 | 82 | 0 | 49 | 0 | 85 | 1 | 77 | 67 | |||
| Household income | ||||||||||||||||
| Median income | $107K | $105K | $108K | $105K | $99K | $90K | $97K | $105K | $107K | $130K | $135K | $94K | $127K | |||
| Locale | ||||||||||||||||
| % City | 27 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 26 | 31 | 31 | 30 | 23 | 24 | 22 | 29 | 26 | |||
| % Suburban | 44 | 47 | 44 | 48 | 53 | 40 | 42 | 42 | 46 | 54 | 57 | 47 | 49 | |||
| % Rural - Fringe | 22 | 20 | 22 | 20 | 15 | 23 | 19 | 22 | 23 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 23 | |||
| % Rural - Distant | 6 | 6 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 2 | |||
| % Rural - Remote | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| % Missing | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
— .subsubsection
— .subsubsection
| 2011 D+ Cluster | SAT Math | SAT CR | Going Out of State | Percent NonWhite | Need Financial Aid | Med Income |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 51 | 546.00 | 533.00 | 32% | 30% | 57% | $95,432 |
| 52 | 480.00 | 470.00 | 30% | 58% | 71% | $63,578 |
| 53 | 561.00 | 544.00 | 32% | 50% | 55% | $92,581 |
| 54 | 458.00 | 443.00 | 25% | 83% | 76% | $38,977 |
| 55 | 566.00 | 565.00 | 52% | 24% | 63% | $71,576 |
| 56 | 420.00 | 411.00 | 29% | 93% | 66% | $35,308 |
| 57 | 541.00 | 519.00 | 52% | 47% | 43% | $67,394 |
| 58 | 533.00 | 489.00 | 28% | 87% | 69% | $68,213 |
| 59 | 561.00 | 562.00 | 52% | 24% | 74% | $54,750 |
| 60 | 589.00 | 590.00 | 63% | 37% | 36% | $104,174 |
| 61 | 585.00 | 567.00 | 51% | 30% | 40% | $123,858 |
| 62 | 596.00 | 595.00 | 67% | 24% | 72% | $59,824 |
| 63 | 548.00 | 541.00 | 39% | 23% | 65% | $69,347 |
| 64 | 466.00 | 466.00 | 48% | 34% | 29% | $49,829 |
| 65 | 440.00 | 433.00 | 23% | 93% | 78% | $45,081 |
| 66 | 499.00 | 492.00 | 20% | 12% | 76% | $50,453 |
| 67 | 519.00 | 501.00 | 27% | 53% | 59% | $60,960 |
| 68 | 552.00 | 558.00 | 52% | 35% | 65% | $57,902 |
| 69 | 534.00 | 521.00 | 37% | 19% | 65% | $88,100 |
| 70 | 613.00 | 598.00 | 65% | 29% | 61% | $86,381 |
| 71 | 405.00 | 408.00 | 39% | 97% | 68% | $42,661 |
| 72 | 399.00 | 397.00 | 31% | 87% | 47% | $32,708 |
| 73 | 528.00 | 514.00 | 29% | 42% | 62% | $90,849 |
| 74 | 433.00 | 435.00 | 29% | 84% | 79% | $44,065 |
| 75 | 459.00 | 457.00 | 28% | 85% | 72% | $50,421 |
| 76 | 514.00 | 509.00 | 27% | 38% | 64% | $61,332 |
| 77 | 502.00 | 492.00 | 26% | 18% | 75% | $62,372 |
| 78 | 594.00 | 578.00 | 56% | 26% | 39% | $134,400 |
| 79 | 550.00 | 551.00 | 57% | 32% | 74% | $40,909 |
| 80 | 534.00 | 527.00 | 39% | 39% | 65% | $49,877 |
| 81 | 491.00 | 483.00 | 27% | 57% | 72% | $63,030 |
| 82 | 496.00 | 491.00 | 29% | 21% | 75% | $53,465 |
| 83 | 500.00 | 490.00 | 19% | 26% | 71% | $49,335 |
| Total | 512.00 | 502.00 | 32% | 43% | 65% | $70,231 |
| 2011 D+ Cluster | SAT Math | SAT CR | Going Out of State | Percent NonWhite | Need Financial Aid | Med Income |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 51 | 462.00 | 457.00 | 14% | 33% | 68% | $40,918 |
| 52 | 489.00 | 496.00 | 81% | 99% | 77% | $64,730 |
| 53 | 471.00 | 484.00 | 28% | 38% | 62% | $60,833 |
| 54 | 376.00 | 371.00 | 33% | 96% | 38% | $38,146 |
| 55 | 489.00 | 481.00 | 39% | 46% | 44% | $71,845 |
| 56 | 536.00 | 508.00 | 73% | 43% | 49% | $63,967 |
| 57 | 434.00 | 435.00 | 29% | 82% | 79% | $48,301 |
| 58 | 592.00 | 577.00 | 51% | 27% | 32% | $104,509 |
| 59 | 499.00 | 489.00 | 19% | 18% | 74% | $47,685 |
| 60 | 523.00 | 549.00 | 23% | 30% | 33% | $70,175 |
| 61 | 485.00 | 370.00 | 33% | 89% | 9% | $61,385 |
| 62 | 474.00 | 473.00 | 34% | 92% | 67% | $55,515 |
| 63 | 440.00 | 427.00 | 28% | 86% | 72% | $49,238 |
| 64 | 606.00 | 542.00 | 37% | 89% | 57% | $81,911 |
| 65 | 515.00 | 503.00 | 28% | 43% | 65% | $72,692 |
| 66 | 498.00 | 515.00 | 37% | 37% | 73% | $60,272 |
| 67 | 526.00 | 546.00 | 48% | 41% | 69% | $71,279 |
| 68 | 541.00 | 540.00 | 41% | 26% | 62% | $79,260 |
| 69 | 390.00 | 395.00 | 36% | 92% | 74% | $43,391 |
| 70 | 595.00 | 581.00 | 56% | 33% | 48% | $105,721 |
| 71 | 400.00 | 412.00 | 57% | 98% | 80% | $43,137 |
| 72 | 528.00 | 544.00 | 35% | 25% | 64% | $70,018 |
| 73 | 451.00 | 438.00 | 24% | 89% | 76% | $48,406 |
| 74 | 654.00 | 579.00 | 76% | 80% | 46% | $59,089 |
| 75 | 514.00 | 502.00 | 31% | 20% | 71% | $72,850 |
| 76 | 600.00 | 584.00 | 72% | 50% | 28% | $90,265 |
| 77 | 595.00 | 508.00 | 64% | 75% | 39% | $39,490 |
| 78 | 473.00 | 468.00 | 48% | 43% | 22% | $56,703 |
| 79 | 594.00 | 585.00 | 61% | 26% | 71% | $65,180 |
| Total | 514.00 | 502.00 | 32% | 44% | 65% | $70,223 |